Goat
of arms
Flag
Цахиагийн Элбэгдорж
Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj
President
of Mongolia
Goat
of arms
Flag
Цахиагийн Элбэгдорж
Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj
President
of Mongolia
Mongolia
(Mongolian: Монгол улс/ Mongol Uls) is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It
borders Russia to the north and People's Republic of China to the
south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with
Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only a few miles from
Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulan Bator, the capital and largest city, is
home to about 38% of the population. Mongolia's political system is a
parliamentary republic.
The area of what is now Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic
empires, including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran, the Gökturks,
and others. The Mongol Empire was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206.
After the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols returned to their
earlier patterns. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Mongolia came under
the influence of Tibetan Buddhism. At the end of the 17th century, most
of Mongolia had been incorporated into the area ruled by the Qing
Dynasty. During the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, Mongolia
declared independence, but had to struggle until 1921 to firmly
establish de-facto independence, and until 1945 to gain international
recognition. As a consequence, it came under strong Russian and Soviet
influence: In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was declared, and
Mongolian politics began to follow the same patterns as Soviet politics
of the time. After the breakdown of communist regimes in Eastern Europe
in late 1989, Mongolia saw its own Democratic Revolution in early 1990,
which led to a multi-party system, a new constitution in 1992, and the
- rather rough - transition to a market economy.
At 1,564,116 square kilometres, Mongolia is the nineteenth largest and
most sparsely populated independent country in the world, with a
population of around 2.9 million people. It is also the world's
second-largest landlocked country after Kazakhstan. The country
contains very little arable land, as much of its area is covered by
steppes, with mountains to the north and west and the Gobi Desert to
the south. Approximately 30% of the country's 2.9 million people are
nomadic or semi-nomadic. The predominant religion in Mongolia is
Tibetan Buddhism, and the majority of the state's citizens are of the
Mongol ethnicity, though Kazakhs, Tuvans and other minorities also live
in the country, especially in the west.
History
Prehistory
Important prehistoric sites are the Paleolithic cave drawings of the
Khoid Tsenkheriin Agui (Northern Cave of Blue) in Khovd Province, and
the Tsagaan Agui (White Cave) in Bayankhongor Province. A Neolithic
farming settlement has been found in Dornod Province. Contemporary
findings from western Mongolia include only temporary encampments of
hunters and fishers. The population during the Copper Age has been
described as paleomongolid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as
europid in the west.
In the second millennium B.C, during the bronze age, western Mongolia
was under the influence of the Karasuk culture. Deer stones and the
omnipresent keregsürens (small kurgans) probably are from this era;
other theories date the deer stones as 7th or 8th centuries BCE. A vast
iron-age burial complex from the 5th-3rd century, later also used by
the Xiongnu, has been unearthed near Ulaangom.
Early history
Mongolia, since prehistoric times, has been inhabited by nomads who,
from time to time, formed great confederations that rose to prominence.
The first of these, the Xiongnu, were brought together to form a
confederation by Modu Shanyu in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the
greatest threat to the Qin Dynasty, forcing the latter to construct the
Great Wall of China, itself being guarded by up to almost 300,000
soldiers during marshal Meng Tian's tenure, as a means of defense
against the destructive Xiongnu raids. After the decline of the
Xiongnu, the Rouran, a close relative of the Mongols, came to power
before being defeated by the Göktürks, who then dominated Mongolia for
centuries. During the seventh and eighth centuries, they were succeeded
by Uyghurs and then by the Khitans and Jurchens. By the tenth century,
the country was divided into numerous tribes linked through transient
alliances and involved in the old patterns of internal strife.
Mongol Empire
In the chaos of the late twelfth century, a chieftain named Temüjin
finally succeeded in uniting the Mongol tribes between Manchuria and
the Altai Mountains. In 1206, he took the title Genghis Khan, and waged
a series of military campaigns - renowned for their brutality and
ferocity - sweeping through much of Asia, and forming the Mongol
Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in world history. Under his
successors it stretched from present-day Poland in the west to Korea in
the east, and from Siberia in the north to the Gulf of Oman and Vietnam
in the south, covering some 33,000,000 km. 2 (12,741,000 sq mi. 2), (22% of
Earth's total land area) and having a population of over 100 million
people. After Genghis Khan's death, the empire had been subdivided into
four kingdoms or Khanates which eventually split-up after Möngke's
death in 1259. One of the khanates, the "Great Khaanate", consisting of
the Mongol homeland and China, became the Yuan Dynasty under Kublai
Khan grandson of Genghis Khaan. He set up his capital in present day
Beijing but after more than a century of power, the Yuan was replaced
by the Ming Dynasty in 1368, with the Mongol court fleeing to the
north. As the Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland, they
successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capital Karakorum among
other cities, wiping out the cultural progress that was achieved during
the imperial period and thus throwing Mongolia back to anarchy.
Post-Imperial period
The next centuries were marked by violent power struggles between
various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-Genghisid Oirads
and numerous Chinese invasions (like the five expeditions led by the
Yongle Emperor). In the early 15th century, the Oirads under Esen
Tayisi gained the upper hand, and even raided China in 1449 in a
conflict over Esen's right to pay tribute, capturing the Chinese
emperor in the process. However, Esen was murdered in 1454, and the
Genghisids recovered. In the mid-16th century, Altan Khan of the Tümed,
a grandson of Batumöngke - but no legitimate Khan himself - became
powerful. He founded Hohhot in 1557 and his meeting with the Dalai Lama
in 1578 sparked the second introduction of Tibetan Buddhism to
Mongolia. Abtai Khan of the Khalkha converted to buddhism in 1585 and
founded the Erdene Zuu monastery in 1586. His grandson Zanabazar became
the first Jebtsundamba Khutughtu in 1640.
The last Mongol Khan was Ligden Khan in the early 17th century. He got
into conflicts with the Manchu over the looting of Chinese cities, and
managed to alienate most Mongol tribes. He died in 1634 on his way to
Tibet, in an attempt to evade the Manchu and destroy the Yellow Hat
sect of Buddhism. By 1636, most Inner Mongolian tribes had submitted to
the Manchu. The Khalkha eventually submitted to the Qing in 1691, thus
bringing all but the west of today's Mongolia under Beijing's rule.
After several wars, the Dzungars were virtually annihilated in 1757.
Until 1911, the Manchu maintained control of Mongolia with a series of
alliances and intermarriages, as well as military and economic
measures. Ambans, Manchu "high officials", were installed in Khüree,
Uliastai, and Khovd, and the country was subdivided into ever more
feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms. Over the course of the 19th
century, the feudal lords attached more importance to representation
and less importance to the responsibilities towards their subjects. In
addition the usurious practices of the Chinese traders, along with the
collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals, resulted in
poverty becoming rampant.
Independence
With the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Mongolia declared independence in
1911. The new country's territory was approximately that of the former
Outer Mongolia. The 49 hoshuns of Inner Mongolia as well as the
Mongolians of the Alashan and Qinghai regions expressed their
willingness to join the nascent state, to no avail. In 1919, after the
October Revolution in Russia, Chinese troops led by Xu Shuzheng
occupied the capital but their dominance was short-lived. The Russian
adventurer Baron Ungern who had fought with the Whites against the Red
Army in Siberia, led his troops into Mongolia, triumphing over Chinese
in Niislel Khüree. He ruled briefly, under the blessing of religious
leader Bogd Khan before he was captured and executed by the Red Army
assisted by Mongolian units led by Damdin Sükhbaatar. These events led
to abolition of the feudal system and ensured the country's political
alignment with Bolshevik Russia.
Mongolian People's Republic
In 1924, after the death of the religious leader and king Bogd Khan, a
Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed with support from the
Soviets.
In 1928, Khorloogiin Choibalsan rose to power. He instituted
collectivisation of livestock, the destruction of Buddhist monasteries
and the Mongolia's enemies of the people persecution resulting in the
murder of monks and other people. In Mongolia during the 1920s,
approximately one third of the male population were monks. By the
beginning of the 20th century about 750 monasteries were functioning in
Mongolia. The Stalinist purges in Mongolia beginning in 1937, affected
the Republic as it left more than 30,000 people dead. Japanese
imperialism became even more alarming after the invasion of neighboring
Manchuria in 1931. During the Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1939, the
USSR successfully defended Mongolia against Japanese expansionism. In
August 1945 Mongolian forces also took part in the Soviet Manchurian
Strategic Offensive Operation in Inner Mongolia. The Soviet threat of
seizing parts of Inner Mongolia induced China to recognize Outer
Mongolia's independence, provided that a referendum was held. The
referendum took place on October 20, 1945, with (according to official
numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence. After the
establishment of the People's Republic of China, both countries
confirmed their mutual recognition on October 6, 1949.
In January 26, 1952, Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal took power. In 1956 and again
in 1962, Choibalsan's personality cult was condemned. Mongolia
continued to align itself closely with the Soviet Union, especially
after the Sino-Soviet split of the late 1950s. While Tsedenbal was
visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the
parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with Jambyn
Batmönkh.
Democracy
The introduction of perestroika and glasnost in the USSR by Mikhail
Gorbachev strongly influenced Mongolian politics leading to the
peaceful Democratic Revolution and the introduction of a multi-party
system and market economy. A new constitution was introduced in 1992,
and the "People's Republic" was dropped from the country's name. The
transition to market economy was often rocky, the early 1990s saw high
inflation and food shortages. The first election wins for non-communist
parties came in 1993 (presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary
elections).
Government and politics
Mongolia is a parliamentary republic. The parliament is elected by the
people and in turn elects the government. The president is elected
directly. Mongolia's constitution guarantees full freedom of
expression, religion, and others. Mongolia has a number of political
parties, the biggest ones being the Mongolian People's Revolutionary
Party (MPRP) and the Democratic Party (DP).
The MPRP formed the government of the country from 1921 to 1996 (until
1990 in a one-party system) and from 2000 to 2004. From 2004 to 2006,
it was part of a coalition with the DP and two other parties, and since
2006 it has been the dominant party in two other coalitions. Both
changes of government after 2004 were initiated by the MPRP. The DP was
the dominant force in the ruling coalition between 1996 and 2000, and
also an approximately equal partner with the MPRP in the 2004-2006
coalition. The next parliamentary elections are set for June 2008.
President
Mongolia's president has a symbolic role, but can block the
parliament's decisions, who can then overrule the veto by a 2/3
majority. Mongolia's Constitution provides three requirements for
taking office as President: the individual must be a native-born
Mongolian, be at least 45 years of age, and have resided in Mongolia
for five years prior to taking office. The current President is Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj.
The State Great Khural
Mongolia uses a unicameral parliamentary system in which the president
has a symbolic role and the government chosen by the legislature
exercises executive power. The legislative arm, the State Great Khural,
has one chamber with 76 seats and is chaired by the speaker of the
house. It elects its members every four years by general elections. The
State Great Khural is powerful in the Mongolian government with the
president being largely symbolic and the prime minister being confirmed
from the parliament.
Prime Minister and the Cabinet
The Prime Minister of Mongolia is elected by the State Great Khural.
The current prime minister is Sanjaagiin Bayar, who was elected by
sixty-seven votes to two on November 22, 2007. The deputy prime
minister is Miyeegombyn Enkhbold (since December 5, 2007). There are
ministers of each department (finance, defense, labor, agriculture,
etc.) and those offices constitute the prime minister's cabinet.
The cabinet is nominated by the prime minister in consultation with the
president and confirmed by the State Great Khural.
Foreign relations and military
Mongolia maintains positive relations and has diplomatic missions with
many countries such as the United States, Russia, North and South
Korea, Japan, and the People's Republic of China. The government has
focused a great deal on encouraging foreign investments and trade.
Mongolia supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and has sent several
successive contingents of 103 to 180 troops each to Iraq. Smaller
contingents were also sent to Afghanistan. 200 Mongolian troops are
serving in Sierra Leone on a UN mandate to protect the UN's special
court set up there. From 2005 to 2006, about 40 troops were deployed
with the Belgian and Luxembourgish contingent in Kosovo. On November
21, 2005, George W. Bush became the first-ever sitting U.S. President
to visit Mongolia. In 2004, under the Bulgarian chairmanship, The
Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), invited
Mongolia as its newest Asian Partner.
Geography and climate
At 1,564,116 km. 2 (603,909 mi. 2), Mongolia is the world's
nineteenth-largest country (after Iran). It is significantly larger
than the next-largest country, Peru.
The geography of Mongolia is varied with the Gobi Desert to the south
and with cold and mountainous regions to the north and west. Much of
Mongolia consists of steppes. The highest point in Mongolia is the
Khüiten Peak in the Tavan bogd massif in the far west at 4,374 m
(14,350 ft). The basin of the lake Uvs Nuur, shared with Tuva Republic
in Russia, is a natural World Heritage Site. Most of the country is hot
in the summer and extremely cold in the winter, with January averages
dropping as low as -30°C (-22°F). The country is also subject to
occasional harsh climatic conditions known as zud. Ulan Bator has the
lowest average temperature of any national capital in the world.
Mongolia is high, cold, and windy. It has an extreme continental
climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of
its annual precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days
a year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric
pressure. Precipitation is highest in the north (average of 20 to 35
centimeters per year) and lowest in the south, which receives 10 to 20
centimeters annually. The extreme south is the Gobi, some regions of
which receive no precipitation at all in most years.
The name "Gobi" is a Mongol term for a desert steppe, which usually
refers to a category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to
support marmots but with enough to support camels. Mongols distinguish
Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always
apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape. Gobi
rangelands are fragile and are easily destroyed by overgrazing, which
results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even
Bactrian camels can survive.
Administrative Division
Mongolia is divided into 21 aimags (provinces), which are in turn
divided into 315 sums (districts). The capital Ulan Bator is
administrated separately as a khot (municipality) with provincial
status. The aimags are:
Economy
Mongolia's economy is centered on agriculture and mining. Mongolia has
rich mineral resources, and copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten,
and gold account for a large part of industrial production.
There are currently over 30,000 independent businesses in Mongolia,
chiefly centered around the capital city[. The majority of the
population outside urban areas participate in subsistence herding;
livestock typically consists of sheep, goats, cattle, horses, and
Bactrian camels. Agricultural crops include wheat, barley, potato,
vegetables, tomato, watermelon, sea-buckthorn and fodder crops. GDP per
capita in 2006 was $2,100. Although GDP has risen steadily since 2002
at the rate of 7.5% in an official 2006 estimate, the state is still
working to overcome a sizable trade deficit. A massive ($11 billion)
foreign debt to Russia was settled by the Mongolian government in 2004
with a $250 million payment. Despite growth, the proportion of the
population below the poverty line is estimated to be 35.6% in 1998,
36.1% in 2002–2003, 32.2% in 2006, and both the unemployment rate and
inflation rate are relatively high at 3.2% and 6.0%, respectively (in
2006) Mongolia's largest trading partner is China. As of 2006, 68.4% of
Mongolia's exports went to China, and China supplied 29.8% of
Mongolia's imports.
The Mongolian Stock Exchange, established in 1991 in Ulan Bator, is the
world's smallest stock exchange by market capitalisation.
Industrial sector
Industry currently accounts for 21.4% of GDP, approximately equal to
the weight of the agriculture sector (20.4%). These industries include
construction materials, mining (coal, copper, molybdenum, fluorspar,
tin, tungsten, and gold), oil, food and beverages, processing of animal
products, and cashmere and natural fiber manufacturing. The industrial
production growth rate is estimated to be 4.1% in 2002. Mining is
continuing to rise as a major industry of Mongolia as evidenced by
number of Chinese, Russian and Canadian firms opening and starting
mining business in Mongolia. Domestic food production, especially
packaged food production has been increasingly coming up with speed
with investments from foreign companies.
Science and technology
Some technology companies from nearby countries, such as South Korea
and the People's Republic of China, have started to open offices in
Mongolia. Those companies have tended to focus on software development
rather than hardware production. A number of telecommunications
companies and internet service providers have been established
resulting in greater competition in the internet and phone market,
especially in cell phones like Mobicom Corporation and Magicnet, that
are the largest cellphone and ISP operators in Mongolia respectively.
Service sector
After the transition shocks of the early 1990s, Mongolian domestic
production has picked up again. According to the CIA World Factbook, in
2003, the service sector accounted for 58% of the GDP, with 29% of the
labor force of 1.488 million involved.
Foreign investment from other countries (including China, Japan, South
Korea, Germany and Russia) has helped to add more paved roads. The most
important is a 1000 km north-south road leading from the Russian border
at Sükhbaatar to the Chinese border at Zamyn-Üüd. There are several air
transport companies in Mongolia, including MIAT, Aero Mongolia, and
Eznis Airways.
Petroleum products are mainly (80%) imported from Russia, which makes
Mongolia vulnerable to supply side shocks. This is one strong example
of the influence of Mongolia's neighbors on its economy.
Infrastructure
Modern transportation began to develop during the People's Republic of
Mongolia era helped by the Soviet Union and transportation like the
train and airplanes were brought in. The Trans-Siberian Railway crosses
through Mongolia and that has been the main infrastructure for
transportation of goods between Russia, Mongolia and China for decades.
Mongolia has also domestic and international airport throughout the
country. The main international airport is the Chinggis Khaan
International Airport and direct international flights exist between
South Korea, China, Japan, Russia and Germany. MIAT is the largest air
carrier in Mongolia that does both domestic and international flights.
There are paved roads to some of the larger cities in Mongolia like
between Darkhan and Ulaanbaatar. More paved roads are being added, but
presently paved road system is relatively lacking compared to other
developed countries. Since Mongolia is a landlocked country it doesn't
have large ships but they at one point rented a port and a ship in one
of foreign country's port.
Demographics
Mongolia's total population as of July 2007 is estimated by U.S. Census
Bureau at 2,951,786 people ranking at around 138th in the world in
terms of population. But the U.S. Department of State Bureau of East
Asian and Pacific Affairs uses the U.N. estimations instead of the U.S.
Census Bureau estimations. United Nations Department of Economic and
Social Affairs Population Division estimates Mongolia's total
population (mid. 2007) as 2,629,000 (11% less then U.S. Census Bureau).
But UN estimations are very close to those made by Mongolian National
Statistical Office - 2,612,900 (end of June 2007).
It has a very small population relative to its two border neighbors,
Russia and the People's Republic of China. Though the majority of
Mongolian citizens are of Mongol descent there are small populations of
Kazakh, Tuvan, and Tungus peoples. Mongolia's population growth rate is
estimated at 1.2% (2007 est.). About 59% of the total population is
under age 30, 27% of whom are under 14. This relatively young and
growing population has, as in many developing countries, placed strains
on Mongolia's economy.
Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a decline of total
fertility rate (children per woman) that is steeper than in any other
country in the world, according to recent UN estimations: in 1970-1975,
fertility was estimated to be 7.33 children per woman, but 2005-2010
prospects are 1.87 (4 times less).
Mongolia has become more urbanized. About 40 percent of the population
live in Ulaanbaatar alone, and in 2002 a further 23% lived in Darkhan,
Erdenet, the aimag centers and sum-level permanent settlements. Another
share of the population lives in the sum centers. In 2002, about 30
percent of all households in Mongolia lived from breeding lifestock.
Most herders in Mongolia follow a pattern of nomadic or semi-nomadic
pastoralism.
Ethnic Mongols account for about 85% of the population and consist of
Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of
the Mongol language. The Khalkha make up 90% of the ethnic Mongol
population. The remaining 10% include Buryats, Durbet Mongols and
others in the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. Turkic peoples
(Kazakhs, Tuvans, and Chantuu (Uzbek) constitute 7% of Mongolia's
population, and the rest are Tungusic peoples, Chinese, and Russians.
Most, but not all, Russians left the country following the withdrawal
of economic aid and collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Languages
The official language of Mongolia is Khalkha Mongolian, which uses the
Cyrillic alphabet, and is spoken by 90% of the population. A variety of
different dialects are spoken across the country. In the west the
Kazakh and Tuvan languages, among others, are also spoken. The Russian
language is the most frequently spoken foreign language in Mongolia,
followed by English, though English has been gradually replacing
Russian as the second language. Korean has gained a popularity as tens
of thousands of Mongolians work in South Korea. Interest in Chinese, as
the language of the second neighbouring power, has been growing.
Japanese is also popular among the younger people. A number of older
educated Mongolians speak some German, as they studied in the former
East Germany, while a few speak other languages from the former Eastern
Bloc. Besides that, many younger Mongolians are fluent in the Western
European languages as they study or work in foreign countries including
Germany, France and Italy.
Mongolian is one of the Mongolic languages. Mongolic is frequently
included in the Altaic languages, a group of languages named after the
Altay Mountains that also includes the Turkic and Tungusic languages.
Religion
According to the CIA World Factbook; 50% of Mongolia's population
follow the Tibetan Buddhism, 40% are listed as having no religion, 6%
are Shamanist and Christian, and 4% are Muslim.
But according to the U.S. Department of State, 90% practice Tibetan
Buddhism, followed by Islam (6%), then Christianity (4%), and an
unknown percentage of Shamanism.
The differences between the CIA World Factbook and the U.S. Department
of States estimates for religion are mostly that the nonreligious in
the CIA World Factbook estimate are in the Tibetan Buddhism category in
the U.S. Department of State estimate. A possible explanation for this
is that the flexibility of Buddhism makes it difficult to discern what
constitutes a Buddhist, since Buddhism can be embraced in varying
degrees, unlike some other religions which clearly demarcate their
followers.
Various forms of Tengriism and Shamanism have been widely practiced
throughout the history of what is now modern day Mongolia, as such
beliefs were common among nomadic people in Asian history. Such beliefs
mostly gradually gave way to Tibetan Buddhism, but Shamanism has left a
mark on Mongolian religious culture. Indeed, it continues to be
practised.
Throughout much of the twentieth century, the communist government
ensured that the religious practices of the Mongolian people were
largely repressed. Khorloogiin Choibalsan complied with the orders of
Joseph Stalin, destroying almost all of Mongolia's over 700 Buddhist
monasteries and killing thousands of monks.
The fall of communism in 1991 restored the legality of public religious
practice, and Tibetan Buddhism, which had been the predominant religion
in the region before the rise of Communism, again rose to become the
most widely practiced religion in Mongolia. The end of religious
repression in the 1990s also allowed for other religions, such as Islam
and Christianity, to spread in the country. According to the Christian
missionary group, Barnabas Fund, the number of Christians grew from
just 4 in 1989 to around 40,000 as of 2008.
Education
During the state socialist period, education was one of the areas of
significant achievement in Mongolia. Illiteracy was virtually
eliminated, in part through the use of seasonal boarding schools for
children of nomadic families. Funding to these boarding schools was cut
in the 1990s, contributing to slightly increased illiteracy.
Primary and secondary education formerly lasted ten years, but was
expanded to eleven years. Since the 2008-2009 school year, new first
graders are using the twelve year system. As such, full transition to
the twelve year system will not happen until the 2019-2020 school year,
when the current first graders graduate.
Mongolian national universities are all spin-offs from the National
University of Mongolia and the Mongolian University of Science and
Technology.
The broad liberalization of the 1990s led to a boom in private
institutions of higher education, although many of these establishments
have difficulty living up to their name of "college" or "university".
Health
Since 1990, key health indicators like life expectancy and infant and
child mortality have steadily improved, both due to social changes and
to improvement in the health sector. However, serious problems remain,
especially in the countryside.
Average childbirth (fertility rate) is around 2.25 - 1.87 per woman
(2007) and average life expectancy is 67 - 68 years. Infant mortality
is at 1.9% - 4% and child mortality is at 4.3%.
The health sector comprises 17 specialized hospitals and centers, 4
regional diagnostic and treatment centers, 9 district and 21 aimag
general hospitals, 323 soum hospitals, 18 feldsher posts, 233 family
group practices, and 536 private hospitals and 57 drug supply
companies/pharmacies. In 2002 the total number of health workers was
33273, of which 6823 were doctors, 788 pharmacists, 7802-nurses and
14091 mid-level personnel. At present, there are 27.7 physicians and
75.7 hospital beds per 10,000 inhabitants.
Culture
The main festival is Naadam, which has been organised for centuries,
consists of three Mongolian traditional sports, archery, horse-racing
(over long stretches of open country, not the short racing around a
track practiced in the West), and wrestling. Nowadays it is held on
July 11 to July 13 in the honour of the anniversaries of the National
Democratic Revolution and foundation of the Great Mongol State. Another
very popular activity called Shagaa is the "flicking" of sheep ankle
bones at a target several feet away, using a flicking motion of the
finger to send the small bone flying at targets and trying to knock the
target bones off the platform. This contest at Naadam is very popular
and develops a serious audience among older Mongolians. In Mongolia,
the khoomei, or throat singing, style of music is popular, particularly
in parts of Western Mongolia.
The ornate symbol in the leftmost bar of the national flag is a
Buddhist icon called soyombo. It represents the sun, moon, stars, and
heavens per standard cosmological symbology abstracted from that seen
in traditional thangka paintings.
Sports and recreation
Mongolia's Naadam festival takes place over three days in the summer
and includes horse racing, archery, and Mongolian wrestling. These
three sports, traditionally recognized as the three primary masculine
activities, are the most widely watched and practiced sports throughout
the country.
Horse riding is especially central to Mongolian culture. The
long-distance races that are showcased during Naadam festivals are one
aspect of this, as is the popularity of trick riding. One example of
trick riding is the legend that the Mongolian military hero Damdin
Sükhbaatar scattered coins on the ground and then picked them up while
riding a horse at full gallop.
Other sports such as table tennis, basketball, and soccer are
increasingly getting popular. More Mongolian table tennis players are
competing internationally.
Wrestling is the most popular of all Mongol sports. It is the highlight
of the Three Manly Games of Naadam. Historians claim that Mongol-style
wrestling originated some seven thousand years ago. Hundreds of
wrestlers from different cities and aimags around the country take part
in the national wrestling competition.
There are no weight categories or age limits. Each wrestler has his own
attendant herald. The aim of the sport is to knock one's opponent off
balance and throw him down, making him touch the ground with his elbow
and knee.
The winners are honored with ancient titles: the winner of the fifth
round gets the honorary title of nachin (falcon), of the seventh and
eighth rounds zaan (elephant), and of the tenth and eleventh rounds
arslan (lion). The wrestler who becomes the absolute champion is
awarded the title of avarga (Titan). Every subsequent victory at the
national Naadam-festival will add an epithet to the avarga title, like
"Invincible Titan to be remembered by all".
Beginning in 2003, the Mongolian parliament adopted a new law on
Naadam, making amendments to some of the wrestling titles. The titles
of iarudi and Khartsaga (Hawk) were added to the existing
above-mentioned rules.
The traditional wrestling costume includes an open-fronted jacket, tied
around the waist with a string. This is said to have come into use
after the champion of a wrestling competition many years ago was
discovered to be a woman. The jacket was introduced to ensure that only
men could compete.
International sports
Mongolia's traditional wrestlers have made the transition to Japanese
sumo wrestling with great success. Asashoryu Akinori (Долгорсүрэнгийн Дагвадорж Dolgorsuren Dagwadorj) was the first
Mongolian to be promoted to the top sumo rank of yokozuna in 2003 and
was followed by his countryman Hakuho Sho (Мөнхбатын Даваажаргал Munkhbat Dawaajargal) in 2007.
Naidangiin Tüvshinbayar won Mongolia's first ever Olympic gold medal in
the men's 100-kilogram class of judo.
Football is also played in Mongolia. The Mongolia national football
team began playing again in the 1990s; it has yet to qualify for a
major tournament. The Mongolia Premier League is the top domestic
competition.
Several Mongolian women have excelled in pistol shooting: Otryadyn
Gündegmaa is a silver medalist of the 2008 Olympic Games, Munkhbayar
Dorjsuren is a double world champion and Olympic bronze medal winner
(now representing Germany), while Tsogbadrakhyn Mönkhzul is, as of May
2007, ranked third in the world in the 25 m Pistol event.
Architecture
The traditional Mongolian dwelling is known as a yurt (Mongolian: ger).
According to Mongolian artist and art critic N. Chultem, yurts and
tents were the basis for development of the traditional Mongolian
architecture. In the 16th ad 17th centuries, lamaseries were built
throughout the country. Many of them started as yurt-temples. When they
needed to be enlarged to accommodate the growing number of worshippers,
the Mongolian architects used structures with 6 and 12 angles with
pyramidal roofs to approximate to the round shape of a yurt. Further
enlargement led to a quadratic shape of the temples. The roofs were
made in the shape of marquees. The trellis walls, roof poles and layers
of felt were replaced by stone, brick, beams and planks, and became
permanent.
Chultem distinguished three styles in traditional Mongolian
architecture: Mongolian, Tibetan and Chinese as well as combinations of
the three. Among the first quadratic temples was Batu-Tsagaan (1654)
designed by Zanabazar. An example of the yurt-style architecture is the
lamasery Dashi-Choiling in Ulan Bator. The temple Lavrin (XVIII
century) in the Erdene Zuu lamasery was built in the Tibetan tradition.
An example of a temple built in the Chinese tradition is the lamasery
Choijing Lamiin Sume (1904), which is a museum today. The quadratic
temple Tsogchin in lamasery Gandan in Ulan Bator is a combination of
the Mongolian and Chinese tradition. The temple of Maitreya
(disassembled in 1938) is an example of the Tibeto-Mongolian
architecture. Dashi-Choiling monastery has commenced a project to
restore the temple and the 80 feet (24 m) sculpture of Maitreya..
Music
The music of Mongolia is strongly influenced by Tibetan Buddhism and
nomadism. The natives dance the "tsam" to keep away evil spirits and it
was seen the reminiscences of shamaning. The traditional music includes
a variety of instruments and also the throat-singing technique, khoomei.
Popular music
The first rock band of Mongolia was Soyol-Erdene, founded in the 1960s.
Their Beatles-like manner was severely criticised by the Communist
censorship. It was followed by Mungunhurhree, Ineemseglel, Urgoo, etc.,
carving out the path for the genre in the harsh environment of
Communist ideology. Mungunhurhree and Haranga were to become the
pioneers in the Mongolia's heavy rock music. Haranga approached its
zenith in the late 1980s and 1990s.
The leader of Haranga, famous guitarist Enh-Manlai, generously helped
the growth of their following generations of rockers. Among the
followers of Haranga was the band Hurd. In the early 1990s group
Har-Chono put the beginning for Mongolia's folk-rock merging the
elements of the Mongolian tenuto song (poorly described as "long" song)
into the genre.
By that time, the environment for development of artistic thought had
become largely liberal thanks to the new democratic society in the
country. The 1990s saw development of rap, techno, hip-hop and also boy
bands and girl bands flourish at the turn of the millennium.
Media
Mongolian press began in 1920 with close ties to the Soviet Union under
the Mongolian Communist Party, with the establishment of the Unen
(Truth) newspaper similar to the Soviet Pravda. Until reforms in the
1990s, the government had strict control of the media and oversaw all
publishing, in which no independent media was allowed. The dissolution
of the Soviet Union had a significant impact on Mongolia, where the
one-party state grew into a multi-party democracy, and with that, media
freedoms came to the forefront.
A new law on press freedom, drafted with help from international NGOs
on August 28, 1998 and enacted on January 1, 1999, paved the way for
media reforms. The Mongolian media currently consists of around 300
print and broadcasting outlets.
Since 2006, the media environment has been improving with the
government debating a new Freedom of Information Act, and the removal
of any affiliation of media outlets with the government. Market reforms
have led to an increasing number of people working in the media year on
year, along with students at journalism schools. In its 2008 report,
Reporters Without Borders classified the media environment as 93rd out
of 173, with 1st being most free.
Text from Wikipedia
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